History of the internal combustion engine

Although various forms of internal combustion engines were developed before the 19th century, application was hindered until the commercial drilling and production of petroleum began in the mid-1850s. By the late 19th century, engineering advances led to widespread adoption in a variety of applications.

Timeline of development

Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines:

Pre-modern period

• Before 100 CE: The fire piston is invented in Southeast Asia, and its use is concentrated in Austronesia. This device inspired the Diesel engine, which also uses compression ignition (as opposed to spark ignition).
• 10th to 13th century: The fire arrow, a gunpowder-fuelled form of rocket engine, is invented in China.
• 1206: Al-Jazari in Mesopotamia described a double-acting reciprocating piston pump with a crank-connecting rod mechanism.
• 1206: Al-Jazari's four-bucket water lifting machine, according to Professor Recep Kulcu, "can be considered the precursor to the eccentric and crankshafts found in modern internal combustion engines."
• 13th century: The rocket engine, an internal-combustion engine, was developed by the Chinese, Mongols and Arabs.

Early modern period

• 1509: Leonardo da Vinci described a compressionless engine.
• 1551: Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt invented a 'Monobloc' pump with a six cylinder engine.
• 16th century: In the Mughal Empire under Akbar's reign, rocket artillery was invented in the form of rockets that use metal casing, which made them more weatherproof and allowed a larger amount of gunpowder, increasing their destructive power.
• 1633: Lagâri Hasan Çelebi in the Ottoman Empire is the first aviator reported to have made a successful manned rocket flight.
• 1658: Mughal iron-cased ban rockets were used at the Battle of Samugarh fought between brothers Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh.
• 17th century: Christiaan Huygens used gunpowder to drive water pumps, to supply 3000 cubic meters of water/day for the Versailles palace gardens, essentially creating the first rudimentary internal combustion piston engine.
• 1780–1798: Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Mysore, India, use modern iron-cased rockets against the British Army.
• 1780s: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.
• 1791: John Barber receives British patent #1833 for A Method for Rising Inflammable Air for the Purposes of Producing Motion and Facilitating Metallurgical Operations. In it he describes a turbine.
• 1794: Robert Street built a compressionless engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a century.

19th century

• 1807: Nicéphore Niépce installed his 'moss, coal-dust and resin' fuelled Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saône in France. A patent was subsequently granted by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte on 20 July 1807.
• 1807: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a hydrogen and oxygen mixture, and ignited by electric spark. (See 1780's: Alessandro Volta above.)

• 1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. It was compressionless and based on what Hardenberg calls the "Leonardo cycle," which, as the name implies, was already out of date at that time.

• 1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines. This scientifically established the need for compression to increase the difference between the upper and lower working temperatures.
• 1826 April 1: American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compressionless "Gas or Vapor Engine."

• 1838: a patent was granted to William Barnett (English). This was the first recorded suggestion of in-cylinder compression.

• 1854-57: Eugenio Barsanti & Felice Matteucci invented an engine that was rumored to be the first 4-cycle engine, but the patent was lost.

File:Early-gasoline-engine-models.jpg

Early internal combustion engines were used to power farm equipment similar to these models.

File:Benz Patent Motorwagen Engine.jpg

This internal combustion engine was an integral aspect of the patent for the first patented automobile, made by Karl Benz on January 29, 1886

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Karl Benz

• 1856: in Florence at Fonderia del Pignone (now Nuovo Pignone, later a subsidiary of General Electric), Pietro Benini realized a working prototype of the Italian engine supplying 5 HP. In subsequent years he developed more powerful engines—with one or two pistons—which served as steady power sources, replacing steam engines.
• 1860: Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822–1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine similar in appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam beam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
• 1861 The earliest confirmed patent of the 4-cycle engine, by Alphonse Beau de Rochas. A year earlier, Christian Reithmann made an engine which may have been the same, but it's unknown since he didn't clearly patent it.
• 1862: German inventor Nikolaus Otto was the first to build and sell the engine. He designed an indirect-acting free-piston compressionless engine whose greater efficiency won the support of Eugen Langen and then most of the market, which at that time was mostly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas.
• 1870: In Vienna, Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart.
• 1876: Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, improved the four-cycle engine. The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four-stroke cycle, and after this decision, in-cylinder compression became universal.
• 1878 Dugald Clerk designed the first two-stroke engine. He patented it in England in 1881.
• 1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his internal combustion engine, a reliable two-stroke gas engine, based on the same technology as De Rochas's design of the four-stroke engine. Later, Benz designed and built his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobiles, which were developed in 1885, patented in 1886, and became the first automobiles in production.
• 1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson’s engine had one power phase per revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes, making it more efficient than the Otto cycle.
• 1885: German engineer Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for a supercharger
• 1891: Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They built the first cold-start compression-ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping station. In the same year, an experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone.
• 1892: Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed his Carnot heat engine type motor .
• 1887: Gustaf de Laval introduces the de Laval nozzle
• 1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for his compression ignition (diesel) engine.
• 1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, or the flat engine, in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead center at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.

20th century

• 1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) using peanut oil fuel (see biodiesel).
• 1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named Daimler-Mercedes after his daughter. In 1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.
• 1903 - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of theoretical papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space. A major point in his work is liquid fueled rockets.
• 1903: Ægidius Elling builds a gas turbine using a centrifugal compressor which runs under its own power. By most definitions, this is the first working gas turbine.
• 1905 Alfred Buchi patents the turbocharger and starts producing the first examples.
• 1903-1906: The team of Armengaud and Lemale in France build a complete gas turbine engine. It uses three separate compressors driven by a single turbine. Limits on the turbine temperatures allow for only a 3:1 compression ratio, and the turbine is not based on a Parsons-like "fan", but a Pelton wheel-like arrangement. The engine is so inefficient, at about 3% thermal efficiency, that the work is abandoned.
• 1908: New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward started a motorcycle business in Invercargill and fitted the imported bikes with his own invention – a petrol economiser. His economisers worked as well in cars as they did in motorcycles.
• 1908: Hans Holzwarth starts work on extensive research on an "explosive cycle" gas turbine, based on the Otto cycle. This design burns fuel at a constant volume and is somewhat more efficient. By 1927, when the work ended, he has reached about 13% thermal efficiency.
• 1908: René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
• 1916: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressors to improve high-altitude performance, the first example of the turbocharger.
• 1920: William Joseph Stern reports to the Royal Air Force that there is no future for the turbine engine in aircraft. He bases his argument on the extremely low efficiency of existing compressor designs. Due to Stern's eminence, his paper is so convincing there is little official interest in gas turbine engines anywhere, although this does not last long.
• 1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow gas turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.
• 1923: Edgar Buckingham at the United States National Bureau of Standards publishes a report on jets, coming to the same conclusion as W.J. Stern, that the turbine engine is not efficient enough. In particular he notes that a jet would use five times as much fuel as a piston engine.
• 1925: The Hesselman engine is introduced by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman represented the first use of direct gasoline injection on a spark-ignition engine.
• 1925: Wilhelm Pape patents a constant-volume engine design.
• 1926: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes his groundbreaking paper Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, changing the low confidence in jet engines. In it he demonstrates that existing compressors are "flying stalled", and that major improvements can be made by redesigning the blades from a flat profile into an airfoil, going on to mathematically demonstrate that a practical engine is definitely possible and showing how to build a turboprop.
• 1926 - Robert Goddard launches the first liquid fueled rocket
• 1927: Aurel Stodola publishes his "Steam and Gas Turbines" - basic reference for jet propulsion engineers in the USA.
• 1927: A testbed single-shaft turbo-compressor based on Griffith's blade design is tested at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.
• 1929: Frank Whittle's thesis on jet engines is published
• 1930: Schmidt patents a pulse-jet engine in Germany.
• 1936: French engineer René Leduc, having independently re-discovered René Lorin's design, successfully demonstrates the world's first operating ramjet.
• March, 1937: The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental hydrogen fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth.
• July 18, 1942: The Messerschmitt Me 262 first jet engine flight
• 1954: Felix Wankel's first working prototype DKM 54 of the Wankel engine
• 1986 Benz Gmbh files for patent protection for a form of Scotch yoke engine and begins development of same. Development subsequently abandoned.
• 1999: Brothers, Michael and Peter Raffaele file patent application seeking protection for new form of Scotch yoke engine known as the Slider Engine.

21st century

• 2004 Hyper-X first scramjet to maintain altitude
• 2004 Toyota Motor Corp files for patent protection for new form of Scotch yoke engine.

Engine starting

Main article: Starter motor

Early internal combustion engines were started by hand cranking. Various types of starter motor were later developed. These included:

• An auxiliary petrol engine for starting a larger petrol or diesel engine. The Hucks starter is an example
• Cartridge starters, such as the Coffman engine starter, which used a device like a blank shotgun cartridge. These were popular for aircraft engines
• Pneumatic starters
• Hydraulic starters
• Electric starters

Electric starters are now almost universal for small and medium-sized engines, while compressed-air starting is used for large engines.

Modern vs. historical piston engines

The first piston engines did not have compression, but ran on an air-fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression and, in particular, in-cylinder compression.

See also

• Timeline of heat engine technology

Further reading

• Sloss, Robert (January 1911). "The Children Of The Gas-Engine: The Revolution In Speed And In Convenience In Transportation - Automobiles, Motor-Cycles, Motor-Boats, Aeroplanes And Other Queer Craft That Ten Years Have Brought". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XXI: 13869–13877. Retrieved 2009-07-10.