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Nanotechnology

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Part of a series of articles on
Nanotechnology
  • History
  • Organizations
  • Popular culture
  • Outline
Impact and applications
  • Nanomedicine
  • Nanotoxicology
  • Green nanotechnology
  • Hazards
  • Regulation
Nanomaterials
  • Fullerenes
  • Carbon nanotubes
  • Nanoparticles
Molecular self-assembly
  • Self-assembled monolayer
  • Supramolecular assembly
  • DNA nanotechnology
Nanoelectronics
Nanometrology
  • Atomic force microscopy
  • Scanning tunneling microscope
  • Electron microscope
  • Super resolution microscopy
  • Nanotribology
Molecular nanotechnology
  • Molecular assembler
  • Nanorobotics
  • Mechanosynthesis
  • Molecular engineering

Nanotechnology (or "nanotech") is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology.[1][2] A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defined nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size.

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, energy storage,[3][4] engineering,[5] microfabrication,[6] and molecular engineering.[7] The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly,[8] from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in nanoelectronics, nanomedicine, biomaterials energy production, and consumer products. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials,[9] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

History[]

Main article: History of nanotechnology
Further information: Nanoelectronics

Origins[]

Atalla1963
Dawon Kahng
Mohamed Atalla (above) and Dawon Kahng (below) demonstrated MOS transistors with 100 nm gate oxide thickness in 1960, and then a nanolayer-base M–S junction transistor using thin films with 10 nm thickness in 1962.

In 1960, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs fabricated the first metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) with a gate oxide thickness of 100 nm, along with a gate length of 20 µm.[10] In 1962, Atalla and Kahng fabricated a nanolayer-base metal–semiconductor junction transistor that used gold (Au) thin films with a thickness of 10 nm.[11] This allowed it to operate at a much higher frequency than bipolar transistors of that era.[12]

Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University of Science was the first to use the term "nano-technology" in a 1974 conference,[13] to describe semiconductor processes such as thin film deposition and ion beam milling exhibiting characteristic control on the order of a nanometer. His definition was, "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule." However, the term was not used again until 1981 when Eric Drexler published his first paper on nanotechnology in 1981.[14][15][16]

1980s to early 1990s[]

In the 1980s, several major breakthroughs sparked the growth of nanotechnology in modern era. such as the miniaturization of MOS transistors leading to the emergence of nanoelectronics. In 1985, Egyptian engineer Hisham Z. Massoud introduced the Massoud model.[17] It is the most suitable thermal oxidation model for ultra-thin oxide films,[18] and has since become the most widely used thermal oxidation model in nanoelectronics and nanotechnology.[19] In 1987, Iranian engineer Bijan Davari developed the first MOSFET with a 10 nm gate oxide thickness, using tungsten-gate technology.[20]

The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.[21][22] Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year.

Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[23][24] C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related graphene tubes (called carbon nanotubes and sometimes called Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.

The discovery of carbon nanotubes is largely attributed to Sumio Iijima of NEC in 1991,[25] for which Iijima won the inaugural 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience.

Late 1990s to 2000s[]

Advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of MOSFET devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET. At UC Berkeley, a team of researchers including Digh Hisamoto, Chenming Hu, Tsu-Jae King Liu, Shibly Ahmed, Cyrus Tabery and Jeffrey Bokor fabricated FinFET devices down to a 17 nm process in 1998, then 15 nm in 2001, and then 10 nm in 2002.[26]

In the early 2000s, the field garnered increased scientific, political, and commercial attention that led to both controversy and progress. Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.[27] Challenges were raised regarding the feasibility of applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, which culminated in a public debate between Drexler and Smalley in 2001 and 2003.[28]

Meanwhile, commercialization of products based on advancements in nanoscale technologies began emerging. These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter. Some examples include the Silver Nano platform for using silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial agent, nanoparticle-based transparent sunscreens, carbon fiber strengthening using silica nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles.[29][30]

Governments moved to promote and fund research into nanotechnology, such as in the U.S. with the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which formalized a size-based definition of nanotechnology and established funding for research on the nanoscale, and in Europe via the European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development.

In the 2000s, Iranian scientist Ali Eftekhari[31] founded electrochemical nanotechnology (nanoelectrochemistry),[32][33] particularly for his development of carbon nanotubes and for developing a method for its mass production.[34][35]

By the mid-2000s, new and serious scientific attention began to flourish. Projects emerged to produce nanotechnology roadmaps[36][37] which center on atomically precise manipulation of matter and discuss existing and projected capabilities, goals, and applications.

In 2006, a team of Korean researchers from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) and the National Nano Fab Center developed a 3 nm MOSFET, the world's smallest nanoelectronic device. It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.[38][39]

Governments and corporations[]

Over sixty countries created nanotechnology research and development (R&D) government programs between 2001 and 2004. Government funding was exceeded by corporate spending on nanotechnology R&D, with most of the funding coming from corporations based in the United States, Japan and Germany. The top five organizations that filed the most intellectual patents on nanotechnology R&D between 1970 and 2011 were Samsung Electronics (2,578 first patents), Nippon Steel (1,490 first patents), IBM (1,360 first patents), Toshiba (1,298 first patents) and Canon (1,162 first patents). The top five organizations that published the most scientific papers on nanotechnology research between 1970 and 2012 were the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, University of Tokyo and Osaka University.[40]

Research and development[]

Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Prior to 2012, the USA invested $3.7 billion using its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the European Union invested $1.2 billion, and Japan invested $750 million.[41] Over sixty countries created nanotechnology research and development (R&D) programs between 2001 and 2004. In 2012, the US and EU each invested $2.1 billion on nanotechnology research, followed by Japan with $1.2 billion. Global investment reached $7.9 billion in 2012. Government funding was exceeded by corporate R&D spending on nanotechnology research, which was $10 billion in 2012. The largest corporate R&D spenders were from the US, Japan and Germany which accounted for a combined $7.1 billion.[42]

Top nanotechnology research organizations by patents (1970–2011)[42]
Rank Organization Country First patents
1 Samsung Electronics South Korea 2,578
2 Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Japan 1,490
3 IBM United States 1,360
4 Toshiba Japan 1,298
5 Canon Inc. Japan 1,162
6 Hitachi Japan 1,100
7 University of California, Berkeley United States 1,055
8 Panasonic Japan 1,047
9 Hewlett-Packard United States 880
10 TDK Japan 839
Top nanotechnology research organizations by scientific publications (1970–2012)[42]
Rank Organization Country Scientific publications
1 Chinese Academy of Sciences China 29,591
2 Russian Academy of Sciences Russia 12,543
3 Centre national de la recherche scientifique France 8,105
4 University of Tokyo Japan 6,932
5 Osaka University Japan 6,613
6 Tohoku University Japan 6,266
7 University of California, Berkeley United States 5,936
8 Spanish National Research Council Spain 5,585
9 University of Illinois United States 5,580
10 MIT United States 5,567

Applications[]

As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4 per week.[43] The project lists all of the products in a publicly accessible online database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings,[44] and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.[45]

Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly straighter, and even bowling balls to become more durable and have a harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused with nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the summer. Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.[46] Video game consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to nanotechnology.[47] Also, to build structures for on chip computing with light, for example on chip optical quantum information processing, and picosecond transmission of information.[48]

Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.[49] Cars are being manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future.[50]

Scientists are now turning to nanotechnology in an attempt to develop diesel engines with cleaner exhaust fumes. Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines. The catalyst is what cleans the exhaust fume particles. First a reduction catalyst is employed to take nitrogen atoms from NOx molecules in order to free oxygen. Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.[51] Platinum is used in both the reduction and the oxidation catalysts.[52] Using platinum though, is inefficient in that it is expensive and unsustainable. Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology. The goal of the project, launched in the autumn of 2014, is to maximize surface area and minimize the amount of material required. Objects tend to minimize their surface energy; two drops of water, for example, will join to form one drop and decrease surface area. If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized. The team working on this project aims to create nanoparticles that will not merge. Every time the surface is optimized, material is saved. Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost. If successful, the team hopes to reduce platinum use by 25%.[53]

Nanotechnology also has a prominent role in the fast developing field of Tissue Engineering. When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.[54] For example, when creating scaffolds to support the growth of bone, researchers may mimic osteoclast resorption pits.[55]

Researchers have successfully used DNA origami-based nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of these nanobots can be scaled up to that of a Commodore 64.[56]

Nanoelectronics[]

Main article: Nanoelectronics
See also: FinFET, Semiconductor device fabrication, and Transistor count

Commercial nanoelectronic semiconductor device fabrication began in the 2010s. In 2013, SK Hynix began commercial mass-production of a 16 nm process,[57] TSMC began production of a 16 nm FinFET process,[58] and Samsung Electronics began production of a 10 nm process.[59] TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017,[60] and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.[61] In 2019, Samsung announced plans for the commercial production of a 3 nm GAAFET process by 2021.[62]

Commercial production of nanoelectronic semiconductor memory also began in the 2010s. In 2013, SK Hynix began mass-production of 16 nm NAND flash memory,[57] and Samsung began production of 10 nm multi-level cell (MLC) NAND flash memory.[59] In 2017, TSMC began production of SRAM memory using a 7 nm process.[60]

See also[]

  • Carbon nanotube
  • Electrostatic deflection (molecular physics/nanotechnology)
  • Energy applications of nanotechnology
  • Ethics of nanotechnologies
  • Ion implantation-induced nanoparticle formation
  • Gold nanoparticle
  • List of emerging technologies
  • List of nanotechnology organizations
  • List of software for nanostructures modeling
  • Magnetic nanochains
  • Materiomics
  • Nano-thermite
  • Molecular design software
  • Molecular mechanics
  • Nanobiotechnology
  • Nanoelectromechanical relay
  • Nanoengineering
  • Nanofluidics
  • NanoHUB
  • Nanometrology
  • Nanoparticle
  • Nanoscale networks
  • Nanotechnology education
  • Nanotechnology in fiction
  • Nanotechnology in water treatment
  • Nanoweapons
  • National Nanotechnology Initiative
  • Self-assembly of nanoparticles
  • Top-down and bottom-up
  • Translational research
  • Wet nanotechnology

References[]

  1. ↑ Drexler, K. Eric (1986). Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-19973-5.
  2. ↑ Drexler, K. Eric (1992). Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-57547-4.
  3. ↑ Hubler, A. (2010). "Digital quantum batteries: Energy and information storage in nanovacuum tube arrays". Complexity. 15 (5): 48–55. doi:10.1002/cplx.20306. S2CID 6994736.
  4. ↑ Shinn, E. (2012). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors". Complexity. 18 (3): 24–27. Bibcode:2013Cmplx..18c..24S. doi:10.1002/cplx.21427. S2CID 35742708.
  5. ↑ Elishakoff,I., D. Pentaras, K. Dujat, C. Versaci, G. Muscolino, J. Storch, S. Bucas, N. Challamel, T. Natsuki, Y.Y. Zhang, C.M. Wang and G. Ghyselinck, Carbon Nanotubes and Nano Sensors: Vibrations, Buckling, and Ballistic Impact, ISTE-Wiley, London, 2012, XIII+pp.421; ISBN 978-1-84821-345-6.
  6. ↑ Lyon, David; et., al. (2013). "Gap size dependence of the dielectric strength in nano vacuum gaps". IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation. 20 (4): 1467–1471. doi:10.1109/TDEI.2013.6571470. S2CID 709782.
  7. ↑ Saini, Rajiv; Saini, Santosh; Sharma, Sugandha (2010). "Nanotechnology: The Future Medicine". Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery. 3 (1): 32–33. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.63301. PMC 2890134. PMID 20606992.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  11. ↑ Pasa, André Avelino (2010). "Chapter 13: Metal Nanolayer-Base Transistor". Handbook of Nanophysics: Nanoelectronics and Nanophotonics. CRC Press. pp. 13–1, 13–4. ISBN 9781420075519.
  12. ↑ "A Brief History of the MOS transistor, Part 1: Early Visionaries". Electronic Engineering Journal. 2023-04-03. Retrieved 2024-09-13.
  13. ↑ Taniguchi, Norio (1974). "On the Basic Concept of 'Nano-Technology'". Proceedings of the International Conference on Production Engineering, Tokyo, 1974, Part II.
  14. ↑ Bassett, Deborah R. (2010). "Taniguchi, Norio". In Guston, David H. (ed.). Encyclopedia of nanoscience and society. London: SAGE. p. 747. ISBN 9781452266176. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  15. ↑ Koodali, Ranjit T.; Klabunde, Kenneth J. (2012). "Nanotechnology: Fandamental Principles and Applications". In Kent, James A. (ed.). Handbook of industrial chemistry and biotechnology, volume 1 (12th ed.). New York: Springer. p. 250. ISBN 9781461442592. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  16. ↑ Maynard, edited by Graeme A. Hodge, Diana M. Bowman, Andrew D. (2010). "Tracing and disputing the story of nanotechnology". In Hodge, Graeme A.; Bowman, Diana M.; Maynard, Andrew D. (eds.). International handbook on regulating nanotechnologies. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 54. ISBN 9781849808125. Retrieved 4 August 2014. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Massoud, Hisham Z.; J.D. Plummer (1985). "Thermal oxidation of silicon in dry oxygen: Accurate determination of the kinetic rate constants". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 132 (11): 2693–2700. doi:10.1149/1.2113649.
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  20. ↑ Davari, Bijan; Ting, Chung-Yu; Ahn, Kie Y.; Basavaiah, S.; Hu, Chao-Kun; Taur, Yuan; Wordeman, Matthew R.; Aboelfotoh, O.; Krusin-Elbaum, L.; Joshi, Rajiv V.; Polcari, Michael R. (1987). "Submicron Tungsten Gate MOSFET with 10 nm Gate Oxide". 1987 Symposium on VLSI Technology. Digest of Technical Papers: 61–62.
  21. ↑ Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H. (1986). "Scanning tunneling microscopy". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 30 (4): 355–69.
  22. ↑ "Press Release: the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics". Nobelprize.org. 15 October 1986. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
  23. ↑ Kroto, H. W.; Heath, J. R.; O'Brien, S. C.; Curl, R. F.; Smalley, R. E. (1985). "C60: Buckminsterfullerene". Nature. 318 (6042): 162–163. Bibcode:1985Natur.318..162K. doi:10.1038/318162a0. S2CID 4314237.
  24. ↑ Adams, W. W.; Baughman, R. H. (2005). "RETROSPECTIVE: Richard E. Smalley (1943-2005)". Science. 310 (5756): 1916. doi:10.1126/science.1122120. PMID 16373566.
  25. ↑ Monthioux, Marc; Kuznetsov, V (2006). "Who should be given the credit for the discovery of carbon nanotubes?" (PDF). Carbon. 44 (9): 1621–1623. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2006.03.019.
  26. ↑ Tsu‐Jae King, Liu (June 11, 2012). "FinFET: History, Fundamentals and Future". University of California, Berkeley. Symposium on VLSI Technology Short Course. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  27. ↑ "Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties". Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering. July 2004. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
  28. ↑ "Nanotechnology: Drexler and Smalley make the case for and against 'molecular assemblers'". Chemical & Engineering News. 81 (48): 37–42. 1 December 2003. doi:10.1021/cen-v081n036.p037. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
  29. ↑ "Nanotechnology Information Center: Properties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines". American Elements. Archived from the original on 26 December 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
  30. ↑ "Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products". The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. 2008. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
  31. ↑ Eftekhari Research Group in MERC
  32. ↑ Nanostructured Materials in Electrochemistry
  33. ↑ https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Ali_Eftekhari.html
  34. ↑ A. Eftekhari, et al, Carbon, 2006, 44 (7), 1343 – 1345.
  35. ↑ A. Eftekhari, et al, Chemistry Letters, 2006, 35 (1), 138 – 139.
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  37. ↑ "NASA Draft Nanotechnology Roadmap" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-01-22.
  38. ↑ "Still Room at the Bottom (nanometer transistor developed by Yang-kyu Choi from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology)", Nanoparticle News, 1 April 2006, archived from the original on 6 November 2012
  39. ↑ Lee, Hyunjin; et al. (2006), "Sub-5nm All-Around Gate FinFET for Ultimate Scaling", Symposium on VLSI Technology, 2006: 58–59, doi:10.1109/VLSIT.2006.1705215, hdl:10203/698, ISBN 978-1-4244-0005-8, S2CID 26482358
  40. ↑ World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2015. pp. 112–4. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  41. ↑ Apply nanotech to up industrial, agri output Archived 2012-04-26 at the Wayback Machine, The Daily Star (Bangladesh), 17 April 2012.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 World Intellectual Property Report: Breakthrough Innovation and Economic Growth (PDF). World Intellectual Property Organization. 2015. pp. 112–4. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  43. ↑ "Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products". The Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. 2008. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
  44. ↑ Kurtoglu M. E.; Longenbach T.; Reddington P.; Gogotsi Y. (2011). "Effect of Calcination Temperature and Environment on Photocatalytic and Mechanical Properties of Ultrathin Sol–Gel Titanium Dioxide Films". Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 94 (4): 1101–1108. doi:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.04218.x.
  45. ↑ "Nanotechnology Information Center: Properties, Applications, Research, and Safety Guidelines". American Elements. Archived from the original on 26 December 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
  46. ↑ "Nanotechnology Consumer Products". nnin.org. 2010. Archived from the original on January 19, 2012. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
  47. ↑ Nano in computing and electronics Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine at NanoandMe.org
  48. ↑ Mayer, B.; Janker, L.; Loitsch, B.; Treu, J.; Kostenbader, T.; Lichtmannecker, S.; Reichert, T.; Morkötter, S.; Kaniber, M.; Abstreiter, G.; Gies, C.; Koblmüller, G.; Finley, J. J. (2015). "Monolithically Integrated High-β Nanowire Lasers on Silicon". Nano Letters. 16 (1): 152–156. Bibcode:2016NanoL..16..152M. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03404. PMID 26618638.
  49. ↑ Nano in medicine Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine at NanoandMe.org
  50. ↑ Nano in transport Archived 2011-10-29 at the Wayback Machine at NanoandMe.org
  51. ↑ Catalytic Converter at Wikipedia.org
  52. ↑ How Catalytic Converters Work Archived 2014-12-10 at the Wayback Machine at howstuffworks.com
  53. ↑ Nanotechnology to provide cleaner diesel engines Archived 2014-12-14 at the Wayback Machine. RDmag.com. September 2014
  54. ↑ Cassidy, John W. (2014). "Nanotechnology in the Regeneration of Complex Tissues". Bone and Tissue Regeneration Insights. 5: 25–35. doi:10.4137/BTRI.S12331. PMC 4471123. PMID 26097381.
  55. ↑ Cassidy, J. W.; Roberts, J. N.; Smith, C. A.; Robertson, M.; White, K.; Biggs, M. J.; Oreffo, R. O. C.; Dalby, M. J. (2014). "Osteogenic lineage restriction by osteoprogenitors cultured on nanometric grooved surfaces: The role of focal adhesion maturation". Acta Biomaterialia. 10 (2): 651–660. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2013.11.008. PMC 3907683. PMID 24252447. Archived from the original on 2017-08-30.
  56. ↑ Amir, Y.; Ben-Ishay, E.; Levner, D.; Ittah, S.; Abu-Horowitz, A.; Bachelet, I. (2014). "Universal computing by DNA origami robots in a living animal". Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (5): 353–357. Bibcode:2014NatNa...9..353A. doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.58. PMC 4012984. PMID 24705510.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "History: 2010s". SK Hynix. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
  58. ↑ "16/12nm Technology". TSMC. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Samsung Mass Producing 128Gb 3-bit MLC NAND Flash". Tom's Hardware. 11 April 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "7nm Technology". TSMC. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  61. ↑ Shilov, Anton. "Samsung Completes Development of 5nm EUV Process Technology". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2019-05-31.
  62. ↑ Armasu, Lucian (11 January 2019), "Samsung Plans Mass Production of 3nm GAAFET Chips in 2021", www.tomshardware.com

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