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Telecommunication

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Telecommunication refers to communication over long distances. In practice, something of the message may be lost in the process. 'Telecommunication' covers all forms of distance and/or conversion of the original communications, including radio, telegraphy, television, telephony, data communication and computer networking.

The elements of a telecommunication system are a transmitter, a medium (line) and possibly a channel imposed upon the medium (see baseband and broadband as well as multiplexing), and a receiver. The transmitter is a device that transforms or encodes the message into a physical phenomenon; the signal. The transmission medium, by its physical nature, is likely to modify or degrade the signal on its path from the transmitter to the receiver. The receiver has a decoding mechanism capable of recovering the message within certain limits of signal degradation. Sometimes, the final "receiver" is the human eye and/or ear (or in some extreme cases other sensory organs) and the recovery of the message is done by the brain (see psychoacoustics.)

Telecommunication can be point-to-point, point-to-multipoint or broadcasting, which is a particular form of point-to-multipoint that goes only from the transmitter to the receivers.

One of the roles of the telecommunications engineer is to analyse the physical properties of the line or transmission medium, and the statistical properties of the message in order to design the most effective encoding and decoding mechanisms.

When systems are designed to communicate through human sensory organs (mainly those for vision and hearing), physiological and psychological characteristics of human perception must be taken into account. This has important economic implications and engineers must research what defects can be tolerated in the signal and not significantly degrade the viewing or hearing experience.

Examples of human (tele)communications[]

In a simplistic example, consider a normal conversation between two people. The message is the sentence that the speaker decides to communicate to the listener. The transmitter is the language areas in the brain, the motor cortex, the vocal cords, the larynx, and the mouth that produce those sounds called speech. The signal is the sound waves (pressure fluctuations in air particles) that can be identified as speech. The channel is the air carrying those sound waves, and all the acoustic properties of the surrounding space: echoes, ambient noise, reverberation. Between the speaker and the listener, there might be other devices that do or do not introduce their own distortions of the original vocal signal (for example a telephone, a HAM radio, an IP phone, etc.) The receiver is the listener's ear and auditory system, the auditory nerve, and the language areas in the listener's brain that will "decode" the signal into meaningful information and filter out background noise.

All channels have noise. Another important aspect of the channel is called the bandwidth. A low bandwidth channel, such as a telephone, cannot carry all of the audio information that is transmitted in normal conversation, causing distortion and irregularities in the speaker's voice, as compared to normal, in-person speech.

History[]

Main article: History of telecommunication

Early history[]

Early telecommunications included smoke signals and drums. Talking drums were used by natives in Africa, and smoke signals in North America and China. Contrary to what one might think, these systems were often used to do more than merely announce the presence of a military camp.[1][2]

Beacons and pigeons[]

Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post had Persian roots, and was later used by the Romans to aid their military. Frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul.[3] The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons.[4] In the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a pigeon service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed.[5]

In the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could only pass a single bit of information, so the meaning of the message such as "the enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon in advance. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, when a beacon chain relayed a signal from Plymouth to London.[6]

In 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system (or semaphore line) between Lille and Paris.[7] However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres (six to nineteen miles). As a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880.[8]

Telegraph and telephone[]

On 25 July 1837, the first commercial electrical telegraph was demonstrated by English inventor Sir William Fothergill Cooke, and English scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone.[9][10] Both inventors viewed their device as "an improvement to the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device.[11]

Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837. His code was an important advance over Wheatstone's signaling method. The first transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27 July 1866, allowing transatlantic telecommunication for the first time.[12]

The conventional telephone was patented by Alexander Bell in 1876. Elisha Gray also filed a caveat for it in 1876. Gray abandoned his caveat and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876. Gray had filed his caveat for the variable resistance telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone.[88][13] Antonio Meucci invented a device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line nearly thirty years before in 1849, but his device was of little practical value because it relied on the electrophonic effect requiring users to place the receiver in their mouths to "hear".[14] The first commercial telephone services were set-up by the Bell Telephone Company in 1878 and 1879 on both sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London.[15][16]

Radio[]

Millimetre wave wireless radio communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60 GHz in his experiments.[17] He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves,[18] when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.[19][20]

Starting in 1895, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless communication using the then newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves, showing by 1901 that they could be transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.[21]

World War I accelerated the development of radio for military communications. After the war, commercial radio AM broadcasting began in the 1920s and became an important mass medium for entertainment and news. World War II again accelerated development of radio for the wartime purposes of aircraft and land communication, radio navigation and radar.[22] Development of stereo FM broadcasting of radio took place from the 1930s on-wards in the United States and displaced AM as the dominant commercial standard by the 1960s, and by the 1970s in the United Kingdom.[23]

Television[]

In 1924, Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi began a research program on electronic television. In 1925, he demonstrated a CRT television with thermal electron emission.[24] In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40-line resolution,[25] the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver.[24] In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931.[26] In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on television, influencing the later work of Vladimir K. Zworykin.[27]

On 25 March 1925, John Logie Baird was able to demonstrate the transmission of moving pictures at the London department store Selfridges. Baird's device relied upon the Nipkow disk and thus became known as the mechanical television. It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the British Broadcasting Corporation beginning 30 September 1929.[28] However, for most of the twentieth century televisions depended upon the cathode ray tube invented by Karl Braun. A version of such a television to show promise was produced by Philo Farnsworth and demonstrated to his family on 7 September 1927.[29] After World War II, the experiments in television that had been interrupted were resumed, and it also became an important home entertainment broadcast medium.

Thermionic valves[]

The type of device known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve uses the phenomenon of thermionic emission of electrons from a heated cathode and is used for a number of fundamental electronic functions such as signal amplification and current rectification.

Non-thermionic types, such as a vacuum phototube however, achieve electron emission through the photoelectric effect, and are used for such as the detection of light levels. In both types, the electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric field in the tube.

The simplest vacuum tube, the diode invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, contains only a heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the device—from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids.[30] These devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the twentieth century. They were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, sound recording and reproduction, long-distance telephone networks, and analogue and early digital computers. Although some applications had used earlier technologies such as the spark gap transmitter for radio or mechanical computers for computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube that made these technologies widespread and practical, and created the discipline of electronics.[31]

In the 1940s the invention of semiconductor devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices, which are smaller, more efficient, reliable and durable, and cheaper than thermionic tubes. From the mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were then being replaced with the transistor. Thermionic tubes still have some applications for certain high-frequency amplifiers.

Semiconductor era[]

The modern period of telecommunication history from 1950 onwards is referred to as the semiconductor era, due to the wide adoption of semiconductor devices in telecommunication technology. The development of transistor technology and the semiconductor industry enabled significant advances in telecommunication technology, and led to a transition away from state-owned narrowband circuit-switched networks to private broadband packet-switched networks.[32]

Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technologies such as large-scale integration (LSI) and RF CMOS (radio-frequency complementary MOS), along with information theory (such as data compression), led to a transition from analog to digital signal processing, with the introduction of digital telecommunications (such as digital telephony and digital media) and wireless communications (such as cellular networks and mobile telephony), leading to rapid growth of the telecommunications industry towards the end of the 20th century.[33]

Transistors[]

Main articles: History of the transistor, MOSFET, and Edholm's law
Further information: RF CMOS and LDMOS

The development of transistor technology has been fundamental to modern electronic telecommunication.[34][35][36] Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually construct a working device at that time.[37] The first working transistor, a point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947.[35]

The MOSFET (metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was later invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[38][39][40] It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[41] The MOSFET is the building block or "workhorse" of the information revolution and the information age,[42][43][44] and the most widely manufactured device in history.[45][46] MOS technology, including MOS integrated circuits and power MOSFETs, drives the communications infrastructure of modern telecommunication.[47][48][49] According to Edholm's law, the bandwidth of telecommunication networks has been doubling every 18 months.[50] Advances in MOS technology, including MOSFET scaling (increasing transistor counts at an exponential pace, as predicted by Moore's law), has been the most important contributing factor in the rapid rise of bandwidth in telecommunications networks.[51]

By the early 1970s, MOSFETs were used in a wide range of telecommunications equipment, such as crosspoint switches, mail sorter machines, mobile radio, modems, multimeters, multiplexers, push-button signal receivers, teleprinters, display devices such as television receivers, and telephone sets such as payphones and push-button telephones.[52] By the 1990s, CMOS (complementary MOS) VLSI (very large-scale integration) technology was widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges, private branch exchanges (PBX) and key telephone systems (KTS); digital transmission applications such as digital loop carriers, pair gain multiplexers, telephone loop extenders, integrated services digital network (ISDN) terminals, cordless telephones and cell phones; and applications such as speech recognition equipment, voice data storage, voice mail and digital tapeless answering machines.[53] By the early 21st century, MOSFETs were used in all microprocessors, memory chips, and telecommunication circuits,[54] as well as most essential elements of wireless telecommunications, such as mobile devices, transceivers, base station modules, routers and RF power amplifiers.[55]

According Edholm's law, the bandwidth of telecommunication networks has been doubling every 18 months.[56] Advances in MOS technology, including MOSFET scaling (increasing transistor counts at an exponential pace, as predicted by Moore's law), has been the most important contributing factor in the rapid rise of bandwidth in telecommunications networks.[57]

Computer networks and the Internet[]

Main articles: Computer, Computer network, and History of the Internet

On 11 September 1940, George Stibitz transmitted problems for his Complex Number Calculator in New York using a teletype, and received the computed results back at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire.[58] This configuration of a centralized computer (mainframe) with remote dumb terminals remained popular well into the 1970s. However, already in the 1960s, researchers started to investigate packet switching, a technology that sends a message in portions to its destination asynchronously without passing it through a centralized mainframe. A four-node network emerged on 5 December 1969, constituting the beginnings of the ARPANET, which by 1981 had grown to 213 nodes.[59] ARPANET eventually merged with other networks to form the Internet.

ARPANET's development centred on the Request for Comment process and on April 7, 1969, RFC 1 was published. This process is important because ARPANET would eventually merge with other networks to form the Internet and many of the protocols the Internet relies upon today were specified through this process. The first Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification, Template:IETF RFC (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), was written by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, and published in December 1974. It coined the term "Internet" as a shorthand for internetworking.[60] In September 1981, RFC 791 introduced the Internet Protocol v4 (IPv4). This established the TCP/IP protocol, which much of the Internet relies upon today. A more relaxed transport protocol that, unlike TCP, did not guarantee the orderly delivery of packets called the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) was submitted on 28 August 1980 as RFC 768. An e-mail protocol, SMTP, was introduced in August 1982 by RFC 821 and http://1.0%5B%5D a protocol that would make the hyperlinked Internet possible was introduced in May 1996 by RFC 1945.

Digital telephone technology[]

Main article: Digital telephony
Further information: Push-button telephone and Speech coding

The rapid development and wide adoption of pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital telephony was enabled by metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology.[61] MOS technology was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications.[62][61] MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with the MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit, which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s.[61] In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOSFETs and MOS capacitors for data conversion. This was followed by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) chip, developed by Gray and J. McCreary in 1975.[61]

MOS SC circuits led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s.[61][63] The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980,[61] has since been the industry standard for digital telephony.[61][63] By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges and data transmission applications.[63]

Digital media[]

Practical digital media distribution and streaming was made possible by advances in data compression, due to the impractically high memory, storage and bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media.[64] The most important compression technique is the discrete cosine transform (DCT),[65] a lossy compression algorithm that was first proposed as an image compression technique by Nasir Ahmed at the University of Texas in 1972.[66] The DCT algorithm was the basis for the first practical video coding format, H.261, in 1988.[67] It was followed by more DCT-based video coding standards, most notably the MPEG video formats from 1991 onwards.[65] The JPEG image format, also based on the DCT algorithm, was introduced in 1992.[68] The development of the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) algorithm led to the MP3 audio coding format in 1994,[69] and the Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) format in 1999.[70]

Videotelephony[]

The development of videotelephony involved the historical development of several technologies which enabled the use of live video in addition to voice telecommunications.

Videotelephony developed in parallel with conventional voice telephone systems in the late 20th century. Only in the late 20th century with the advent of powerful video codecs and high-speed broadband did it become a practical technology for regular use. With the rapid improvements and popularity of the Internet, it became widespread through the use of videoconferencing and webcams, which frequently utilize Internet telephony, and in business, where telepresence technology has helped reduce the need to travel.

Practical digital videotelephony was only made possible with advances in video compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video. To achieve Video Graphics Array (VGA) quality video (480p resolution and 256 colors) with raw uncompressed video, it would require a bandwidth of over 92 Mbps.[71] The most important compression technique that enabled practical digital videotelephony and videoconferencing is the discrete cosine transform (DCT).[71][72] The DCT, a form of lossy compression, was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972.[73] The DCT algorithm became the basis for the first practical video coding standard that was useful for videoconferencing, H.261, standardised by the ITU-T in 1988.[72]

Wireless revolution[]

Main article: Wireless revolution

The wireless revolution began in the 1990s,[74][75][76] with the advent of digital wireless networks leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology,[77] including the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones, mobile telephony, pagers, wireless computer networks,[74] cellular networks, the wireless Internet, and laptop and handheld computers with wireless connections.[78] The wireless revolution has been driven by advances in radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering,[74] and the transition from analog to digital RF technology.[77][78]

Advances in metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) technology, the key component of the RF technology that enables digital wireless networks, has been central to this revolution.[77] The invention of the MOSFET by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959 led to the development of power MOSFET technology.[79] Hitachi developed the vertical power MOSFET in 1969,[80] and then the lateral-diffused metal-oxide semiconductor (LDMOS) in 1977.[81] RF CMOS (radio frequency CMOS) integrated circuit technology was later developed by Asad Abidi at UCLA in the late 1980s.[82] By the 1990s, RF CMOS integrated circuits were widely adopted as RF circuits,[82] while discrete MOSFET (power MOSFET and LDMOS) devices were widely adopted as RF power amplifiers, which led to the development and proliferation of digital wireless networks.[77][83] Most of the essential elements of modern wireless networks are built from MOSFETs, including base station modules, routers,[83] telecommunication circuits,[84] and radio transceivers.[82] MOSFET scaling has led to rapidly increasing wireless bandwidth, which has been doubling every 18 months (as noted by Edholm's law).[77]

Timeline[]

Visual, auditory and ancillary methods (non-electrical)[]

  • Prehistoric: Fires, Beacons, Smoke signals, Communication drums, Horns
  • 6th century BCE: Mail
  • 5th century BCE: Pigeon post
  • 4th century BCE: Hydraulic semaphores
  • 1500 Korean hwacha net uses hwachas arrows to send mails throughout a town.
  • 15th century CE: Maritime flag semaphores
  • 1672: First experimental acoustic (mechanical) telephone
  • 1790: Semaphore lines (optical telegraphs)
  • 1867: Signal lamps
  • 1877: Acoustic phonograph
  • 1900; optical picture

Basic electrical signals[]

  • 1838: Electrical telegraph. See: Telegraph history
  • 1830s: Beginning of attempts to develop "wireless telegraphy", systems using some form of ground, water, air or other media for conduction to eliminate the need for conducting wires.
  • 1858: First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable
  • 1876: Telephone. See: Invention of the telephone, History of the telephone, Timeline of the telephone
  • 1880: Telephony via lightbeam photophones

Advanced electrical and electronic signals[]

  • 1896: First practical wireless telegraphy systems based on Radio. See: History of radio.
  • 1900: first television displayed only black and white images. Over the next decades, colour television were invented, showing images that were clearer and in full colour.
  • 1914: First North American transcontinental telephone calling
  • 1927: Television. See: History of television
  • 1927: First commercial radio-telephone service, U.K.–U.S.
  • 1930: First experimental videophones
  • 1934: First commercial radio-telephone service, U.S.–Japan
  • 1936: World's first public videophone network
  • 1946: Limited capacity Mobile Telephone Service for automobiles
  • 1947: First working transistor (see History of the transistor)
  • 1950: Semiconductor era begins
  • 1956: Transatlantic telephone cable
  • 1959: Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
  • 1962: Commercial telecommunications satellite
  • 1964: Fiber optical telecommunications
  • 1965: First North American public videophone network
  • 1969: Computer networking
  • 1972: Discrete cosine transform (DCT) digital media data compression
  • 1973: First modern-era mobile (cellular) phone
  • 1974: Internet (see History of Internet)
  • 1979: INMARSAT ship-to-shore satellite communications
  • 1981: First mobile (cellular) phone network
  • 1982: SMTP email
  • 1998: Mobile satellite hand-held phones
  • 2003: VoIP Internet Telephony

See also[]

References[]

Citations[]

  1. ↑ Native American Smoke Signals, William Tomkins, 2005.
  2. ↑ Talking Drums Archived 2006-09-10 at the Wayback Machine, Instrument Encyclopedia, Cultural Heritage for Community Outreach, 1996.
  3. ↑ Levi, Wendell (1977). The Pigeon. Sumter, SC: Levi Publishing Co, Inc. ISBN 978-0-85390-013-9.
  4. ↑ Blechman, Andrew (2007). Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. ISBN 978-0-7022-3641-9. Archived from the original on 14 May 2008.
  5. ↑ "Chronology: Reuters, from pigeons to multimedia merger" (Web article). Reuters. 19 February 2008. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
  6. ↑ David Ross, The Spanish Armada, Britain Express, accessed October 2007.
  7. ↑ Les Télégraphes Chappe, Cédrick Chatenet, l'Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 2003.
  8. ↑ CCIT/ITU-T 50 Years of Excellence, International Telecommunication Union, 2006
  9. ↑ William Brockedone. "Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph". Republished by The Museum of Science and Technology (Ottawa).
  10. ↑ "Who made the first electric telegraph communications?". The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
  11. ↑ The Electromagnetic Telegraph, J. B. Calvert, 19 May 2004.
  12. ↑ The Atlantic Cable, Bern Dibner, Burndy Library Inc., 1959
  13. ↑ Elisha Gray, Oberlin College Archives, Electronic Oberlin Group, 2006.
  14. ↑ Antonio Santi Giuseppe Meucci, Eugenii Katz. (Retrieved May 2006 from chem.ch.huji.ac.il)
  15. ↑ Connected Earth: The telephone Archived 22 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine, BT, 2006.
  16. ↑ History of AT&T, AT&T, 2006.
  17. ↑ "Milestones: First Millimeter-wave Communication Experiments by J.C. Bose, 1894-96". List of IEEE milestones. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  18. ↑ Emerson, D. T. (1997). "The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of MM-wave research". IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Research. 45 (12): 2267–2273. Bibcode:1997imsd.conf..553E. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.39.8748. doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853. ISBN 9780986488511. reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., Antentop, Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.
  19. ↑ "Timeline". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 August 2019.
  20. ↑ "1901: Semiconductor Rectifiers Patented as "Cat's Whisker" Detectors". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
  21. ↑ Tesla Biography, Ljubo Vujovic, Tesla Memorial Society of New York, 1998.
  22. ↑ Thompson, Jr., R.J. (2011). Crystal Clear: The Struggle for Reliable Communications Technology in World War II, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
  23. ↑ Théberge, P., Devine, K. & Everrett, T. (2015). Living Stereo: Histories and Cultures of Multichannel Sound. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924-1941". Retrieved December 11, 2015.
  25. ↑ Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television, NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), 2002, retrieved 2009-05-23.
  26. ↑ High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company, page 220, Springer Science+Business Media
  27. ↑ Albert Abramson, Zworykin, Pioneer of Television, University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 231. ISBN 0-252-02104-5.
  28. ↑ The Pioneers Archived 14 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, MZTV Museum of Television, 2006.
  29. ↑ Philo Farnsworth, Neil Postman, TIME Magazine, 29 March 1999
  30. ↑ Hoddeson, L. "The Vacuum Tube". PBS. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
  31. ↑ Macksey, Kenneth; Woodhouse, William (1991). "Electronics". The Penguin Encyclopedia of Modern Warfare: 1850 to the present day. Viking. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-670-82698-8. The electronics age may be said to have been ushered in with the invention of the vacuum diode valve in 1902 by the Briton John Fleming (himself coining the word 'electronics'), the immediate application being in the field of radio.
  32. ↑ Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). The Worldwide History of Telecommunications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 363–8. ISBN 9780471205050.
  33. ↑ Srivastava, Viranjay M.; Singh, Ghanshyam (2013). MOSFET Technologies for Double-Pole Four-Throw Radio-Frequency Switch. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1. ISBN 9783319011653.
  34. ↑ Jakubowski, A.; Łukasiak, L. (2010). "History of Semiconductors". Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology. nr 1: 3–9.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Lambert, Laura; Poole, Hilary W.; Woodford, Chris; Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (2005). The Internet: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 16. ISBN 9781851096596.
  36. ↑ Gaudin, Sharon (12 December 2007). "The transistor: The most important invention of the 20th century?". Computerworld. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
  37. ↑ "1926 – Field Effect Semiconductor Device Concepts Patented". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on March 22, 2016. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
  38. ↑ "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
  39. ↑ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 321–3. ISBN 9783540342588.
  40. ↑ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  41. ↑ Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN 9780470508923.
  42. ↑ "Triumph of the MOS Transistor". YouTube. Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  43. ↑ Raymer, Michael G. (2009). The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet Age. CRC Press. p. 365. ISBN 9781439803127.
  44. ↑ "Transistors - an overview". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  45. ↑ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum. April 2, 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  46. ↑ Baker, R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7. ISBN 978-1118038239.
  47. ↑ Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs. Cambridge University Press. p. vii. ISBN 9781107434493.
  48. ↑ Omura, Yasuhisa; Mallik, Abhijit; Matsuo, Naoto (2017). MOS Devices for Low-Voltage and Low-Energy Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 53. ISBN 9781119107354.
  49. ↑ Whiteley, Carol; McLaughlin, John Robert (2002). Technology, Entrepreneurs, and Silicon Valley. Institute for the History of Technology. ISBN 9780964921719. These active electronic components, or power semiconductor products, from Siliconix are used to switch and convert power in a wide range of systems, from portable information appliances to the communications infrastructure that enable the Internet. The company's power MOSFETs — tiny solid-state switches, or metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors — and power integrated circuits are widely used in cell phones and notebook computers to manage battery power efficiently
  50. ↑ Cherry, Steven (2004). "Edholm's law of bandwidth". IEEE Spectrum. 41 (7): 58–60. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2004.1309810.
  51. ↑ Jindal, R. P. (2009). "From millibits to terabits per second and beyond - Over 60 years of innovation". 2009 2nd International Workshop on Electron Devices and Semiconductor Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/EDST.2009.5166093. ISBN 978-1-4244-3831-0.
  52. ↑ Zeidler, G.; Becker, D. (1974). "MOS LSI Custom Circuits Offer New Prospects for Communications Equipment Design". Electrical Communication. Western Electric Company. 49–50: 88–92. In many fields of communications equipment design, MOS LSI custom built circuits provide the only practical and economic solution. Important examples include the coin telephone NT 2000, the QUICKSTEP* push button set, and a push button signal receiver. (...) A complete list of all applications is beyond the scope of this paper since new MOS developments are constantly being initiated in the various technical areas. Typical examples of completed and present MOS developments are:
    — crosspoints
    — multiplexers
    — modems
    — mobile radios
    — push button signal receivers
    — mail sorting machines
    — multimeters
    — telephone sets
    — coin telephones
    — teleprinters
    — screen displays
    — television receivers.
  53. ↑ Floyd, Michael D.; Hillman, Garth D. (8 October 2018) [1st pub. 2000]. "Pulse-Code Modulation Codec-Filters". The Communications Handbook (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 26–1, 26–2, 26–3.
  54. ↑ Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781107052406.
  55. ↑ Asif, Saad (2018). 5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 128–134. ISBN 9780429881343.
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